First-wave COVID-19 linked to long-term depressive symptoms universityleeds SciReports
. Participants were asked to respond about their experiences over the last 2 weeks on a three-point scale . Scores ranged from 3 to 9 where a higher score indicates higher levels of loneliness. Cronbach’s alphas for the scale in the current sample ranged from 0.88 to 0.90. We separated scores based on a cut-off of 7 or more as indicative of high loneliness.
To assess physical and mental health status, participants were asked “Do you have any long-standing physical or mental impairment, illness or disability?” and were then provided a list of physical health conditions and mental health conditions . Participants who reported an existing physical or mental health condition received a score of 1 or 0 .Analyses were conducted in SPSS v.25.
Multiple imputation was also carried out and 10 imputed datasets were created; analyses were then conducted on a randomly selected dataset and the results of the imputed and unimputed datasets were compared following the same method used in O’Connor et al.Just under 9% of participants reported COVID-19 at wave 1 , 8.5% reported COVID-19 at wave 2 and 9.1% reported COVID-19 at wave 3 . In total, 393 participants reported COVID-19 at waves 1, 2 or 3.
Individuals who reported that they had contracted probable COVID-19 had poorer outcomes on all three mental health measures with higher depression, anxiety and loneliness scores, and lower wellbeing (see Fig.
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